Mothering Under Lock and Key

Pregnancy, Parenting, and the Punitive Realities of Incarcerated Women

Abstract

Since the 1980s, the number of women incarcerated in the United States has risen by over 645 per cent (Bronson and Sufrin; Kajstura and Sawyer). Nevertheless, the criminal justice system continues to operate with male-centred policies that disregard women’s unique experiences. This article examines the intersection of incarceration with motherhood, pregnancy, punishment, and parenting, highlighting how systemic neglect exacerbates the struggles of justice-involved women. Most incarcerated women are young, poor women of colour with histories of mental health issues, substance use, and victimization. Among these women, a significant majority are mothers whose imprisonment leads to family disruption, poverty, and weakened parental bonds. Pregnant incarcerated women face further hardships, including limited access to prenatal care and the harmful and controversial practice of shackling during pregnancy and labour. Despite state-level restrictions, shackling persists, exposing women to severe physical and psychological harm. Postrelease, mothers encounter additional barriers, such as financial instability, stigma, challenges in regaining custody of their children, and insufficient access to community resources like childcare and employment support. These obstacles complicate successful reentry and often perpetuate cycles of poverty and criminalization. Current policies and practices largely ignore the gendered realities of incarcerated women, reinforcing historical biases and systemic inequalities. Drawing on feminist criminology, public health research, and legal scholarship, this article argues for comprehensive, gender-responsive reforms that prioritize the health, dignity, and familial bonds of incarcerated and formerly incarcerated mothers. Without meaningful change, the carceral system will continue to marginalize one of its most vulnerable and overlooked populations.